Denis had more ambitious goals, however. Using the rationalization that he had not found Father Hidalgo living among the Indians, he pushed on toward Spanish settlements, a decision that would have far-reaching consequences. Bearing a French passport, St. Denis arrived at San Juan Bautista in July with the news that the Tejas desired the return of Spanish missionaries.
His appearance alerted officials that their enemies were in contact with Indians in East Texas. Denis under house arrest and awaited instructions from his superiors in Mexico City. Denis, Manuela S.
Denis was eventually sent under guard to the capital, where he likewise managed to win over the viceroy and obtain his freedom. Worth mentioning is that the Caddos attempted to intercede on behalf of the French Canadian to help secure his release. Also noteworthy is that the chief executive of New Spain appointed the charismatic St. Denis as commissary and guide for an expedition to reestablish Spanish missions in East Texas, a major purpose of which was to counter French influence in the region.
Returning to San Juan Bautista, St. Denis married his intended and departed for Texas on April 27, The religious contingent reestablished Mission San Francisco at a different site from the original and renamed it San Francisco de los Neches de los Tejas.
The reestablishment of missions and a presidio in East Texas was very important historically, as it gave Spain a valid claim to the land north of the Rio Grande; did much to determine that Texas would be Spanish, not French; and helped to advance the eventual boundary between Texas and Louisiana to the Sabine River. For the enterprising St. Denis, who served as a translator and provided other valuable services, the presence of Spaniards near Louisiana opened the door for the contraband trade that became a way of life on the distant Texas frontier.
Although the Spanish again received a friendly welcome from the First Peoples of East Texas, the latter proved unwilling to congregate in missions. These traders provides First Peoples with guns, bullets, powder, knives, and such, in return for horses, hides, and captives, while the missionaries offered sermons.
For the Spanish to try to force compliance seemed foolish, since the strength of the military guard was inadequate. Unless Spanish presence could be augmented and a halfway station established between the Rio Grande and the eastward missions, this attempt to occupy Texas seemed destined to go the way of the failed enterprise of the s. At the instigation of Father Antonio de San Buenaventura y Olivares , who had earlier visited a site on the San Antonio River in and determined to establish a mission and civilian settlement there, the viceroy made the suppression of illicit trade from Louisiana a primary objective.
He also pledged critically-needed support for the Franciscan missions in Texas. Indeed, support and supplies were badly needed in East Texas, as the Hasinai, who were trading with the French for goods that included firearms and horses, proved increasingly uncooperative.
These actions came none too soon. In a brief war in Europe between Spain and France overflowed into Texas and reaffirmed fears about the threat posed by the French. From Natchitoches Philippe Blondel and six soldiers easily captured the poorly-defended Adaes mission, but in the resulting confusion a lay brother escaped.
He spread fear of an impending French attack throughout the mission outposts all the way to Presidio Dolores. He ordered immediate abandonment of the six missions and the military garrison, thus bringing an inglorious close to the second effort at establishing a Spanish presence in East Texas. Even though livestock had accompanied previous entradas, Spanish ranching in Texas began with the arrival of these large herds in Nevertheless, he put his superior numbers to good use.
Denis, who had become commandant of the French settlement at Natchitoches. Across the province were ten missions and hundreds of potential neophytes, in addition to the core of the small civilian settlement at San Antonio. Peace in Europe with its implications for America prompted the king of Spain to order reforms within New Spain in the interest of economy. Unfortunately for the residents at San Antonio, the reduction of military strength in Texas left the settlement vulnerable to raids by Apaches at the very time it attempted to integrate an influx of important colonists.
Seven of the soldiers who accompanied him were married and brought their families. That the newcomers had been granted special privileges by the crown, including designations of noble lineage, fueled the tension. Jones, Jr. Although the peril abated from time to time, the severity of the attacks worsened notably in the s, with the appearance of the Comanches at San Antonio.
An eventual approach favored by the Franciscans was to extend missionary efforts beyond San Antonio, and the Apaches used that initiative to their advantage. Nevertheless, despite both external and internal challenges, San Antonio grew to become the most important and viable community in Spanish Texas. The French, however, were much more adept than the Spanish in establishing trade with Texas Indians. At the Red River, the French won favor with the Kadohadachos a Caddo group , who used the European rivalry to their advantage.
Frenchmen were likewise successful in exchanging goods with the Wichitas and Tawakonis in northern Texas. To the south, they crossed the Sabine in the early s and initiated contact with the Orcoquizas and Bidais along the lower San Jacinto and Trinity Rivers. Neither establishment enjoyed much success, however, and both were abandoned within fifteen years.
Besides continued French incursions, another concern for Spain involved the English colonization of Georgia in the early s. Considering that area to be part of Florida, Spaniards viewed the presence of foreigners there as putting as-yet-unsettled Gulf Coast regions at risk.
In alarm deepened with the outbreak of war between England and Spain, a conflict that presaged the larger War of the Austrian Succession — Spain regarded the Costa del Seno Mexicano , an inhospitable region between Tampico and Matagorda Bay, as especially vulnerable to French and English designs. In an impressive display of efficiency, between and the colonizer founded twenty-four towns, two of which were within present-day Texas, along with fifteen missions. The founding of Laredo completed colonization efforts that had relocated more than 6, Spaniards, congregated nearly 3, Indians, and helped establish the cattle industry in the Lower Rio Grande Valley.
Notably less successful was a simultaneous effort to expand the mission system along the San Gabriel River, which the Spanish called San Xavier, to the northeast of San Antonio. In the area of modern Rockdale, Texas, three Franciscan missions collectively known as the San Xavier missions and a presidio were founded in the late s and early s to minister to the Tonkawas and allied groups.
These First Peoples had indicated a willingness to be missionized, but their major motivation was to seek protection from Lipan raiders. Internal discord, fatal diseases, serious drought, occasional flooding, and Apache raids all played a role in the eventual failure of this undertaking. The officer attempted to blame former Indian neophytes; however, circumstantial evidence and damning testimony cast suspicion on the commander and some of his men.
He and five others were sent to Coahuila and there placed under house arrest. These events effectively doomed the San Xavier enterprise, even though it continued to exist for a few more years. In , three years after the infamous murders, two missions and the presidio were transferred to the San Marcos River.
In the entire assets of the San Xavier missions were redirected to a new religious outpost for the Apaches in Central Texas—the most disastrous mission-extension project in the history of Spanish Texas.
Ironically, the new mission-presidio complex was established in the late s at the request of Lipan Apaches, known for their previous hostility to the Spanish. The Apaches not only pretended an interest in becoming neophytes but also assured that silver could be found to the north—two powerful motivators for Spaniards. In near present Menard, Texas, Col. During its brief existence of less than a year, the mission did not attract a single Apache resident. In mid-March , perhaps as many as 2, Comanches and their allies, including Wichitas, Bidais, Hasinai, and Tonkawas, converged on the mission that they pillaged and burned.
It was never rebuilt. Although Col. Ortiz Parrilla prepared for a similar attack on the presidio, it did not occur. When the Indians tried to lure him out of the fort, he refused to accept the challenge, and the raiding party eventually withdrew. To abandon the site would inspire contempt for Spanish authority and encourage future attacks; however, mounting a campaign against the perpetrators would necessitate considerable manpower and expenditures.
This reinforced the imperative of punishing First Peoples. Consequently, they moved to the Red River to prepare their defenses. Many were also armed with French muskets. In the resultant clash of arms that lasted for hours, neither side could claim victory. Rather than renewing the battle the following day, Ortiz Parrilla, whose dead, wounded, and missing totaled more than fifty, ordered a retreat and left two field pieces behind.
Historians have traditionally regarded the above Red River campaign of as a rout of the Spanish troops, and an argument can be made that the Indians scored a victory. Presidio San Luis de las Amarillas, where Ortiz Parrilla had held command, was strengthened and maintained for another ten years, only to be abandoned in In verifiable reports that the French were trading with First Peoples in that area led the viceroy to decree the establishment of a garrison and mission that jointly came to be called El Orcoquisac near present Anahuac in southeast Texas.
A proposed villa never materialized. Horrible conditions ranging from an inhospitable environment to supply shortages plagued the undertaking, even though permanent occupation at Orcoquisac did not end until This relative success can be attributed in part to the nature of the Coahuiltecan-speaking natives involved.
New World mines yielded gold and silver for Spain in far greater amounts than France and Portugal had ever been able to extract from West Africa. One-fifth of the total production, the quinto real, went to the Spanish Crown. The average value of silver shipped to Spain rose to a million pesos a year before the conquest of Peru, and to more than 35 million a year by the end of the century.
Cacao, cochineal, hides, spices, sugar, timber, and tobacco yielded additional income. Seville, through which all legal trade with the colonies passed, became a great financial center and nearly quadrupled in size between and With such wealth at stake, Spain was concerned about possible interference by other nations.
Initially, only Portugal posed a serious threat to Spanish monopoly. Intended to exclude Spain from Africa and India, and Portugal from the Far East, this treaty also effectively deprived Spain of any legitimate claim to much of present-day Brazil. Shortly after the ratification of the treaty, Portugal gained control of trade with the Spice Islands, and showed occasional interest in Newfoundland. In , to eliminate the threat of Portuguese expansion, Spain annexed Portugal.
Although Spain mortgaged Venezuela to a German banking house for a brief period , she was successful in keeping most interlopers out of her holdings from Mexico to Chile for the remainder of the sixteenth century. The nine-tenths of North America lying north and east of Mexico was another matter.
In the early s, Spain made a few attempts to explore Florida and the Gulf coast. Around , Juan Ponce de Leon, conqueror of Puerto Rico, conducted the first reconnaissance of the area. Two years later, Ponce de Leon died in a disastrous attempt to build a settlement in Florida, and Spain withdrew from further serious efforts to establish a permanent presence there for another half-century.
The first Spanish town in what is now the United States was not in Florida, but somewhere between 30 degrees and 34 degrees North. In , Ayllon had ordered a slaving expedition, and in , set out himself with approximately Spanish colonists--including women, children, and three Dominican friars--and a number of African slaves.
After a false start, Ayllon built the town of San Miguel de Guadalupe. His venture was doomed from the outset. The principals of the colony quarreled, Indians attacked, slaves rebelled, and Ayllon died.
Only survivors returned to Hispaniola. Later, in a slightly smaller group under Narvaez plundered and skirmished along the Gulf coast from Yampa Bay to Texas, where it disintegrated. Cabeza de Vaca and three other members finally reached Mexico in From to de Soto and, after his death, Moscoso led an ever-shrinking party on a circuitous route through the southeastern and southcentral United States.
The Portuguese also traded these slaves, introducing much-needed human capital to other European nations. In the following years, as European exploration spread, slavery spread as well.
In time, much of the Atlantic World would become a gargantuan sugar-plantation complex in which Africans labored to produce the highly profitable commodity for European consumers. A fortified trading post, it had mounted cannons facing out to sea, not inland toward continental Africa; the Portuguese had greater fear of a naval attack from other Europeans than of a land attack from Africans.
Portuguese traders soon began to settle around the fort and established the town of Elmina. Elmina Castle on the west coast of Ghana was used as a holding pen for slaves before they were brought across the Atlantic and sold. Originally built by the Portuguese in the fifteenth century, it appears in this image as it was in the s, after being seized by Dutch slave traders in Although the Portuguese originally used the fort primarily for trading gold, by the sixteenth century they had shifted their focus.
The dungeon of the fort now served as a holding pen for African slaves from the interior of the continent, while on the upper floors Portuguese traders ate, slept, and prayed in a chapel. Slaves lived in the dungeon for weeks or months until ships arrived to transport them to Europe or the Americas.
For them, the dungeon of Elmina was their last sight of their home country. The Spanish established the first European settlements in the Americas, beginning in the Caribbean and, by , extending throughout Central and South America. Thousands of Spaniards flocked to the Americas seeking wealth and status.
The history of Spanish exploration begins with the history of Spain itself. During the fifteenth century, Spain hoped to gain advantage over its rival, Portugal. The marriage of Ferdinand of Aragon and Isabella of Castile in unified Catholic Spain and began the process of building a nation that could compete for worldwide power.
In , they completed the Reconquista: the centuries-long Christian conquest of the Iberian Peninsula. The Reconquista marked another step forward in the process of making Spain an imperial power, and Ferdinand and Isabella were now ready to look further afield. Their goals were to expand Catholicism and to gain a commercial advantage over Portugal. To those ends, Ferdinand and Isabella sponsored extensive Atlantic exploration.
Starting in , he approached Genoese, Venetian, Portuguese, English, and Spanish monarchs, asking for ships and funding to explore this westward route. The Spanish monarchs knew that Portuguese mariners had reached the southern tip of Africa and sailed the Indian Ocean.
They understood that the Portuguese would soon reach Asia and, in this competitive race to reach the Far East, the Spanish rulers decided to act. This sixteenth-century map shows the island of Hispaniola present-day Haiti and Dominican Republic. Note the various fanciful elements, such as the large-scale ships and sea creatures, and consider what the creator of this map hoped to convey. In addition to navigation, what purpose would such a map have served?
Columbus held erroneous views that shaped his thinking about what he would encounter as he sailed west. The potential for other trading opportunities led the Portuguese to explore even further south along the west cost of Africa.
They were the first European nation to bypass the land routes controlled by Muslims, opening shipping routes to the source of spices. The Portuguese had the expertise to explore westward into the Atlantic Ocean as well, but the capacity of that small country was limited. Portugal lacked the population and military capacity even to occupy the territories they "discovered" in Africa.
They also found the trade in gold and slaves from Africa, and the trade in spices from East Asia, sufficiently rewarding. Sailing into the unknown regions of the Atlantic Ocean on a speculative "what might be out there" journey was a low priority, when the already-known opportunities in Africa and Asia were so valuable. Spain had a different perspective.
The Portuguese success in Asia also caused the Spanish to look for a path to the Spice Islands, ideally a route not already dominated by their neighbor on the Iberian peninsula.
The Spanish did establish tiny enclaves in North Africa such as Melilla, but also directed their expansion westward towards North America. Columbus miscalculated the distance to the Indies, and saw an opportunity to create a new trading route via the Atlantic Ocean.
After lengthy negotiations, Spanish monarchs Ferdinand and Isabella supported Columbus's initial journey west. Their dream was to open a new route across the Atlantic Ocean to get access to the spices, without paying high costs to deal with rivals. The Muslims already controlled the land route, and the Portuguese already controlled the sea route via Africa. Supporting an Italian willing to sail west into the unknown was a speculative investment for Ferdinand and Isabella, but offered the best opportunity for Spain.
After Columbus returned in , Spanish leaders quickly recognized their opportunity to obtain wealth from the New World and surpass the Portuguese. The Spanish did not limit their explorations to the Caribbean, or their economic strategy to finding just gold.
Enslaving the Native Americans was a quick path to profits, first by shipping them to Spain and then forcing them to labor on Caribbean islands. In contrast to the colonization pattern of the English, the Spanish rarely sent a fleet of ships loaded with colonists directly from Spain to the North American continent. Ponce de Leon made the first attempt to create a permanent colony in North America after Columbus's discovery, eight years after he led the first major European exploration of the North American continent into Florida in He returned in with people to start a settlement near modern-day Tampa.
On that trip, Ponce de Leon brought seeds to plant and livestock cattle, pigs, horses, sheep, and goats to support the colonists. The first Spanish effort to permanently settle in North America failed. The local Calusa tribe successfully resisted his attempt to occupy their territory.
Ponce de Leon abandoned the colonization project and returned to Cuba, where he died from an arrow wound that he had suffered in Florida. Settlement initiatives by the English, starting in at Roanoke Island, came long after the Spanish efforts to start colonies in the 's. Augustine, a full-scale and permanently-occupied town in North America.
The Spanish chose to focus their investment in the Caribbean, Central America, and South America, but they did explore all of the North American shoreline. After various ships mapped the edge of the continent from the Caribbean to Newfoundland, Spain sent expeditions that explored inland from the Florida and Carolina coast to the Mississippi River and Mexico.
That same year, Captain Pedro de Quejo mapped the coastline from Florida to Delaware, sailing along the Virginia shore on that trip but capturing no slaves. One Spanish slavehunter was Lucas Vasquez de Ayllon. Chicora spun tall tales about mineral wealth in the New World, and succeeded in getting a trip back home.
Ayllon's first attempt at settlement involved a six-ship expedition with people. It left from Hispaniola the island shared today by Haiti and the Dominican Republic in Virginia was mapped as part of the land of Lucas Vasquez de Ayllon in , while Estevao Gomes's name was assigned to New England on the secret master map kept in Spain Padron Real for informing ship captains before they sailed Source: Library of Congress, Carta universal en que se contiene todo lo que del mundo se ha descubierto fasta agora by Diego Ribero, Ayllon had invested his personal fortune, but mismanaged the project.
The settlers did not choose their final site until October, when it was too late to plant crops. The local inhabitants were not friendly or enthusiastic about trading for food. The colonists got sick and hungry, and then Ayllon died. After just three months, the survivors returned to Hispaniola and San Miguel de Guadelupe was another colonization failure. Ayllon's colony, in what today is Georgia, was the second attempt by any European nation to create a permanent settlement in North America, following Ponce de Leon's effort near what today is Tampa.
The next major expedition to North America was also led by a Spaniard seeking to become rich from new discoveries. In , Panfilo de Narvaez took soldiers on his expedition through Florida. Like Ponce de Leon, they landed at the site of modern Tampa. After marching north through the peninsula, they spent the winter at Apalachee modern Tallahassee. The re-supply ships and the land party failed to link up, leaving the land expedition on its own.
The Spanish ended up traveling west along the Gulf Coast, seeking to get to any settlement in Mexico. Eight years later in , the only four people to survive the trip including Cabeza de Vaca and a black slave known as Estaban reached Mexico City. The next Spanish investment in exploring North America was Hernando de Soto's party between to It traveled inland from Tampa.
Finding Juan Ortiz, a survivor of Narvaez expedition, provided de Soto a translator and guide. Hernando de Soto's group went much deeper into the interior of today's southeastern United States, and came close to the modern-day boundaries of Virginia.
In , his explorers camped at the Native American town of Xuala near what is now the town of Morganton, North Carolina. The Spanish then turned west and headed towards Mexico. Hernando de Soto came close to Virginia in , and 27 years later a party from the Juan Pardo expedition may have crossed what is the modern state boundary to modern-day Saltville Map: Library of Congress, Carte de la Louisiane et du cours du Mississipi The impact of the Spanish as they travelled through Native American communities must have been dramatic.
Local leaders and their followers were seized and forced to obey de Soto's commands, including serving as guides and bearers of Spanish supplies.
The Spanish had swords, armor, guns, horses, large mastiff dogs trained to maim people, and sufficient military capacity to go wherever they desired. Those who had been leaders lost status, since they clearly lacked the power to protect their followers. After the Spanish moved on to dominate another Native American community, those left behind who had survived the visit must have struggled to rebuild their society. After the disruption of de Soto, old assumptions of authority and obligation may have been replaced by new alliances and allegiances.
The political and religious patterns discovered by later English colonists may have been created over just the last three generations.
The Native American cultures disrupted by the English fur traders and settlers during the 's and 's may have existed since the mid's. The first Europeans to penetrate the interior of the Carolinas were not peace-loving, sensitive men. The behavior of the Spanish reflected their cultural assumptions of being "better" than the Native Americans, carrying their Catholic faith into the interior of the continent. It is unlikely that the Native Americans, forced to provide food for the Spanish and to carry their supplies, welcomed their visitors as suggested in one book about North Carolina history: 6.
The mountains were first explored by Europeans when a Spanish expedition under Hernando de Soto arrived in He reported the area to be pleasant and spent a month resting his horses and enjoying the hospitality of the natives. Hernando de Soto's expedition brought Spanish goods into Native American communities, and some items must have been traded through the Piedmont into Virginia.
The soldiers probably brought diseases as well, such as influenza and malaria. Those diseases can spread to other people, but would not trigger pandemics that would depopulate the region. The damage done by those diseases would have been limited to just a small number of Native Americans living near the path of the exploration party.
The Spanish men who made it to Xuala had already lived though the stage of smallpox when they could have infected others, and de Soto's expedition may not have brought pandemic-causing diseases.
The soldiers were adults who had survived the killer infections, and could no longer transmit them. Much later, English colonists in the Carolinas set up a slave trade to capture Native Americans. If the Spanish had not already brought depopulating diseases, the English did. Pandemics during the English colonization period killed most of the people within Native American towns.
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